英译中《洞察力的时代》试译

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Chapter 11

DISCOVERING THE BEHOLDER’S SHARE

The psychological and artistic convergence of Sigmund Freud, Arthur Schnitzler, Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, and Egon Schiele on different aspects of unconscious instincts raises several questions: Did these pioneers realize they were moving along parallel lines? If so, did Schnitzler and Freud make any attempt to initiate a dialogue between themselves? Did Klimt, Kokoschka, and Schiele? Was there any attempt to link the psychological and the artistic approaches to understanding unconscious drives?

In fact, the painters did interact with one another, as did Freud and Schnitzler. Klimt, the father of Austrian Modernism, strongly supported and influenced Kokoschka and Schiele. The two younger artists admired Klimt, although both later broke away from his influence and developed their own distinctive expressionist style. Schiele recognized Klimt as the founder of the modernist school that had molded him, and even though he did not acknowledge it, Schiele was also influenced by the early Kokoschka, the first true Viennese expressionist.

Freud and Schnitzler—both physicians and scientists who matured in the Rokitanskian atmosphere of the Vienna School of Medicine—saw each other as doppelgängers, or intellectual look-alikes. Each dealt in a different way with the same intellectual themes, Freud as a psychologist and Schnitzler as a writer, and each read and appreciated the other’s work.

The relationship of Freud and Schnitzler to the artists, and the artists to them, was at best unidirectional. Neither Freud nor Schnitzler valued the work of the artists, and neither recognized that the artists were also concerned with exploring the unconscious. On the other hand, it is inconceivable that the artists were not aware of, and influenced by, Freud’s and Schnitzler’s work. Schnitzler was, with Hugo von Hofmannsthal, the most important Austrian writer of the time, and with the publication of The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud became a celebrity, a major cultural force in Vienna. Kokoschka’s ideas were clearly similar to Freud’s, although he insisted that he had developed them independently. Kokoschka was widely read and very knowledgeable; moreover, his early supporters, Karl Kraus and Adolf Loos, were intellectuals who knew Schnitzler’s and Freud’s work well. Klimt had, in addition, a deep interest in biology and medicine.

（Chapter 14）

The hippocampus is involved in the encoding and retrieval of recently formed memories. The amygdala is the orchestrator of our emotional life: it coordinates emotional states with autonomic and hormonal responses. In collaboration with other structures, such as the prefrontal cortex, the amygdala also mediates the influence of emotion on cognitive processes, including the generation of conscious feelings. The hippocampus and the amygdala are present in both the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

At the center of each of the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lies the thalamus—the great portal for all sensory information (except smell) entering the cortex. Within the thalamus is the lateral geniculate nucleus, which is specialized for vision and analyzes information from the retina of the eye before relaying it to the cerebral cortex. Adjacent to the thalamus lie the basal ganglia, which play a role in regulating learned movement and aspects of cognition. The outermost region of the basal ganglia, the striatum, is involved with reward and expectation. Below the thalamus sits the hypothalamus, a small but highly influential region that controls many of our vital bodily functions, such as heart rate and blood pressure, through its regulation of the autonomic nervous system. Typically, our emotional response to situations in life involves changes in heart rate and other bodily functions. The hypothalamus also regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.

The midbrain, the smallest region of the brain, contains the machinery for eye movements, which are critical for selecting objects of interest in the world around us, including those in a painting we view. The ventral tegmental area of the midbrain also contains neurons that release dopamine, a chemical that serves to command attention and anticipate reward.

Although the two hemispheres of the brain appear identical and work together in generating perception, comprehension, and movement, they contribute to these functions in different ways: for example, the reception, understanding, and expression of language and grammar—both spoken and sign language—are located primarily in the left hemisphere (Fig. 14-4), while the musical intonation of language is primarily mediated by the right hemisphere (Fig. 14-3). Besides its role in language, the left hemisphere specializes in reading and arithmetic and in logical, analytical, and computational approaches to knowledge. The right hemisphere, in contrast, processes information in a more global, holistic, and perhaps creative manner.

How does the brain, and in particular the visual system, process information? The brain first processes the information it receives from the sensory organs: information about vision from the eyes, sound from the ears, smells from the nose, taste from the tongue, and touch, pressure, and temperature from the skin. It then analyzes this incoming sensory information in light of past experience and generates an internal representation, a perception of the outside world. When appropriate, it initiates purposeful action in response to the information it has received. In this way the brain integrates all aspects of our mental life—perception of sensory information, thought, feeling, memory, and action. As an example, suppose I spot two familiar faces across the street. I unconsciously compare the images of those faces to images I have stored in memory. I now recognize them as my friends Richard and Tom, and I cross the street to greet them. This computational analysis, the recourse to memory, and the generation of action call upon the signaling capability of a vast number of neurons.

Neurons are elementary electrical signaling units that serve as the building blocks of the brain and spinal cord. They signal by generating action potentials—very brief, all-or-none electrical

signals that vary only slightly in amplitude. What does vary—and thus accounts for the neurons’ ability to transmit information—is the frequency and pattern of firing of action potentials.

All the sensory information that comes into the brain—vision, hearing, touch—is converted into neural codes: that is, patterns of action potentials generated by nerve cells. Seeing a baby’s face, watching it smile, looking at a great painting or out into the sunset, experiencing the beauty and calm of a quiet holiday evening with one’s family—all of these are the result of different firing patterns of neurons in different combinations of neural circuitsin our brain.

To begin to appreciate what is required to accomplish the marvel of visual perception, it is useful to compare the brain’s information-processing capabilities to those of artificial computational devices. By the 1940s, emerging knowledge about the biology of the brain and about information processing gave rise to the first computers, the first “electronic brains.” By 1997, computers had become so powerful that Deep Blue, a chess supercomputer built by IBM, defeated Garry Kasparov, thought to be the world’s best chess player. But to the surprise of computer scientists, Deep Blue, which was so skilled at learning the rules, logic, and calculation of chess, had great difficulty learning the rules of face perception and did not come close to distinguishing between faces. This is still true of the most powerful computers today. Computers are better than the human brain at processing and manipulating large amounts of data, but they lack the hypothesis-testing, creative, and inferential capabilities of our visual system.